Как выглядит мобильный телефон

Смартфон — это умный мобильный телефон. Устройство, с помощью которого можно звонить, отправлять письма. Также на него можно скачивать программы, игры, снимать фото и видео. С его помощью можно попасть в интернет, редактировать документы онлайн и многое другое.

Название происходит от английского слова smartphone (умный телефон). Современный гаджет имеет большой сенсорный экран, сотни функций и является улучшенной версией карманного персонального компьютера (с КПК нельзя совершать звонки). О том, какие виды умных телефонов бывают, для чего они нужны и как определиться с оптимальной моделью, рассказали в этом материале.

Умный телефон — компактный и мощный гаджет, доступный каждому. Фото: travelila.com

Немного истории
Какие бывают смартфоны
     Камерофоны
     Игровые
     Прочные и защищённые
     Слайдеры
     Раскладушки
     Со стилусом
     Необычные смартфоны
Как выбрать смартфон в 2022 году
     Диагональ экрана смартфона
     Тип дисплея
     Камера
     Оперативная и встроенная память
     Ёмкость батареи
     Дополнительные опции

Немного истории

Первый предок современного смартфона появился в 1992 году. Это был IBM Simon, который умел принимать звонки, отправлять факсы. В устройстве был встроенный блокнот, калькулятор, календарь, несколько игр. Клавиш у аппарата не было, но был сенсорный экран. Купить его можно было с 1994 года за 1 тыс. американских долларов.

Далёкий предок современного смарт-гаджета. Фото: lt.macrocosmscience.com

Следующая значимая попытка была сделана в 1996 году. Устройство Nokia 9000 соединило телефон и карманный компьютер. Внешне оно было похоже на обычный телефон, но его можно было раскрыть как раскладушку. Внутри была клавиатура и экран. Были доступны разные приложения: календарь, блокнот, калькулятор и др.

Так выглядела Nokia 9000. Фото: nhattao.com

Далее произошли ещё 2 важных события. В 1997 году была основана компания HTC, целью которой стало создание смартфонов и карманных компьютеров. А в 1998 году появился бренд Symbian, под которым началась разработка операционной системы для умных устройств.

В 2000 году появился первый гаджет, который официально назвали смартфоном. Это Ericsson R380s. У смарт устройства была возможность сенсорного ввода и операционная система Symbian. Новомодное название подчёркивало интеллектуальные возможности гаджета. Но у него был важный недостаток — ОС была закрытая (нельзя устанавливать сторонние приложения).

Винтажный и умный Ericsson R380s. Фото: frequencycheck.com

Но уже через год Nokia выпускает Nokia 9210 и анонсирует модель под номером 7650. В устройствах стоит открытая операционная система Symbian 6.0 и Symbian 6.1.

С 2001 по 2007 год отрасль стремительно развивается:

• появляется мобильная ОС от Microsoft;
• на рынок выходит BlackBerry от Research In Motion с необычным дизайном;
• становятся популярными смартфоны на базе HTC Canary.

Важное отличие смартфонов этого периода года — они имели клавиатуру. Но в 2007 появились LG Prada и iPhone. Оба устройства выглядели так, как привычные нам смартфоны — с большим сенсорным дисплеем. Особенности устройств:

• нет стилуса, ввод осуществляется сразу пальцем;
• нет физической клавиатуры.

Смартфон, созданный в сотрудничестве компании LG и дома моды Prada. Фото: charukaru.com

Далее рынок начинает развиваться стремительно. Появляются сотни вариантов дизайна умных гаджетов. Некоторые ещё оснащены физической клавиатурой (например, HTC Dream). Но производители стараются сократить количество кнопок до минимума.

К середине 2010-х на рынке доминируют устройства на Android и iOS. Большая часть устройств имеет 1–3 кнопки под большим экраном. Теперь пользователям не нужны безумные дизайны из 00-х и начала 10-х. Они хотят много функций, яркий и большой экран. Поэтому компании соревнуются, кто сделает самый большой экран с самыми тонкими рамками вокруг него. Устройства становятся всё более похожими на привычные смартфоны.

Современные модели — какие они? С большим экраном, сдержанным и стильным дизайном, производительные. Найти подходящий можно в разных ценовых категориях. Даже до 10 000 рублей и 15 000 рублей можно найти смарт-гаджет с хорошей камерой, большим объёмом памяти, который не будет тормозить и виснуть. А о разновидностях современных смартфонов расскажем чуть ниже.

Какие бывают смартфоны

Камерофоны

Что такое камерофон? Категория гаджетов с улучшенной основной и/или фронтальной камерой.

Важно не только количество мегапикселей (влияют на чёткость, детализацию), но и дополнительные возможности. Например, у большинства современных камерофонов есть искусственный интеллект. Он позволяет улучшить снимок, адаптировать настройки камеры под уровень освещённости. ИИ автоматически меняет чёткость, яркость, глубину цвета, фокусируется на важном объекте.

Среди популярных моделей в этой категории смартфоны от Apple, Huawei P40 Pro, Galaxy S22 Ultra. 

С помощью камерофона можно сделать крутые снимки. Фото: skillshare.com

Игровые

В эту категорию входят устройства с большим экраном (от 6 дюймов с разрешением от 2400×1080), ёмким аккумулятором (от 4000 мА·ч), оперативной памятью от 8 Гб и производительным процессором. Оптимально выбирать игровые смартфоны с высокой частотой обновления кадров (90 и выше). Тогда процесс игры будет максимально плавным, картинка приятной. 

Примеры моделей: OnePlus Nord, Xiaomi Black Shark 4, ASUS ROG Phone 5.

Прочные и защищённые

Часть телефонов не имеет защиту от воды, пыли, сделаны из тонкого пластика, который легко повредить. Но есть устройства, которые готовы к суровым испытаниям.

Их можно взять с собой в поход, они не боятся пыли и воды (уровень защиты IP68/69), упакованы в ударопрочный корпус. Поверх экрана у них обычно стоит Gorilla Glass 4–5. Ещё одна отличительная черта надежных смартфонов — ёмкий аккумулятор (чтобы не разрядился во время похода) — от 8000 мА·ч. 

Пример: Oukitel F150 B2021, Doogee S86 Pro.

Слайдеры

Отличаются от моделей из 00-х. Такой смартфон-слайдер не раздвигается полностью. Но сдвинув экран и сместив две половинки устройства, можно увидеть фронтальную камеру. Если телефон будет в сложенном состоянии, фронтальной камеры не видно. Известные модели: Xiaomi Mi Mix 3 6/128GB, Lenovo Z5 Pro GT, Honor Magic 2.

Xiaomi Mi Mix 3 — современный слайдер с выдвигающейся селфи камерой. Фото: engadget.com

Раскладушки

Старый тренд в новой интерпретации. Samsung, Xiaomi, Huawei и Motorola — популярные бренды, которые сегодня предлагают смартфоны-раскладушки. В современной интерпретации у устройства гибкий экран, который можно сложить. Примеры моделей: Galaxy Z Fold 3, Huawei Mate X2, Xiaomi Mi Mix Fold, Motorola Razr 5G.

Со стилусом

Это специальная ручка, с помощью которой легче рисовать на большом экране, писать, ретушировать фото. Среди смартфонов со стилусом есть как бюджетные, так и дорогие модели.

Например: Samsung Galaxy Note 10, HUAWEI Mate 20X, Galaxy S22 Ultra.

Необычные смартфоны

В эту категорию включили модели, которые очень отличаются по внешнему виду или опциям. Например:

– LG Wing очень футуристичный и пока не совсем привычный. Отличие — 2 OLED дисплея. Верхний можно в любой момент поднять и повернуть. В итоге мы получаем странное устройство, напоминающее букву «Т»;

– Fairphone — линейка смартфонов с необычной концепцией. Философия бренда «собери свой смартфон сам». Устройство модульное. По задумке каждый желающий может заменить нужный модуль на более новый (из доступных), модернизировав устройство;

– Vaporcade Jupiter Io4 — электронная сигарета и смартфон. В корпус встроен резервуар с никотиносодержащей жидкостью, испаритель и выдвижной мундштук. Очень необычное сочетание;

– Nothing Phone — на задней панели 4 светодиодные зоны. Можно использовать как индикатор (зарядки, звонка, уведомления), в качестве заполняющего света при съёмке фотографий. А ещё у него частично прозрачный корпус, сквозь который можно разглядывать комплектующие.

LG Wing — гаджет с запоминающимся дизайном. Фото: androidheadlines.com

Как выбрать смартфон в 2022 году

Каждое устройство имеет определённые характеристики. Сейчас расскажем, на какие стоит обратить внимание при выборе гаджета.

Диагональ экрана смартфона

Это расстояние от одного угла (например, правого верхнего) до второго (например, левого нижнего). Есть 5 размеров:

• до 4,5 дюймов;
• от 4,5 до 5 дюймов;
• от 5 до 5,5 дюймов;
• от 5,5 до 6 дюймов;
• от 6 дюймов.

Последняя категория самая популярная. Такой экран помещается в среднестатистической руке, на нём хорошо видны детали, небольшие объекты в играх, при просмотре видео. На этом дисплее легче читать, работать с документами — глаза меньше напрягаются (чтоб рассмотреть детали) и устают.

Сейчас можно выбрать размер дисплея на любой вкус. Фото: optuseducation.com

Тип дисплея

Есть 3 варианта:

– TFT — самый дешёвый (положительно сказывается на цене телефона). Угол обзора небольшой — всё чётко видно только если смотреть прямо в экран, цвета более тусклые, чем у аналогов;

– IPS — потребляет много энергии. Из-за этого смартфоны при активном использовании разряжаются быстрее аналогов с AMOLED экраном. Из плюсов: точная передача цветов, картинка какая, всё хорошо видно с разных углов и при ярком солнце;

– AMOLED — самый современный дисплей смартфона. Цвета яркие. Экран тонкий (благодаря этому и сам смартфон более изящный), энергоэффективный (меньше расходует заряд).

Для постоянного активного использования лучше выбирать IPS и AMOLED. Если нужен самый бюджетный вариант, можно взять смартфон с TFT экраном.

Камера

Важный параметр, если планируете снимать фото и видео. Топовые камерофоны стоят дорого, но есть и более бюджетные варианты (важно понимать, что качество съёмки будет хуже).

При выборе стоит оценить:

– блок оптики у камеры смартфона (от 1 до 4). Их количество влияет на возможности камеры. Например, первая — основная. Вторая помогает делать более профессиональные портреты с размытым фоном, третья — широкоугольная для пейзажей, четвёртая для макросъёмки;

– количество мегапикселей — обычно чем больше, тем лучше. Почему нельзя смотреть только на мегапиксели и на что ещё стоит обратить внимание, написали в отдельной статье;

– есть ли модуль стабилизации — позволяет снимать видео без дрожания.

Если вам нужен гаджет для хороших кадров, камера — важный параметр, на который нужно обратить внимание. Фото: optuseducation.com

Оперативная и встроенная память

Если оперативной памяти (ОЗУ) достаточно, смартфон включается быстро, не тормозит при запуске игр и других приложений. Для ежедневного использования (фото, видео, соцсети, работа с документами) подойдёт от 4 Гб. Для игр 6 Гб и больше.

Встроенной памяти до 64 Гб хватит, если не скачиваете много приложений, не снимаете фото и видео. В противном случае память быстро заполнится. Поэтому, если вы активный пользователь, лучше выбрать от 128 Гб внутренней памяти.

Ёмкость батареи

Чем она больше, тем дольше будет работать устройство на одном заряде. В большинстве современных моделей ёмкость аккумулятора 4000 мА·ч. Этого хватает на целый день активного использования.

Дополнительные опции

Это необязательные, но полезные особенности. Например:

• разблокировка по отпечатку пальца;
• распознавание лица;
• уровень защиты от влаги и пыли (лучше от IP67, чтобы не бояться, что на устройство попадут капли дождя) и другие.

Защита от влаги — хорошая опция, полезная во время дождя. Фото: irepex.com

Надеемся, что наш материал помог вам разобраться в том, что такое умные телефоны, какие они бывают и как выбрать подходящий. А ещё собрали для вас подборку мощных смартфонов 2022 года, которые точно заслуживают внимания.

Дизайн и функциональные характеристики сотовых телефонов начали интенсивно развиваться, начиная с 1983 года.
Первый этап отмечен телефоном DynaTAC компании Motorola, который появился на экранах в фильме «Уолл-стрит» с участием
Майкла Дугласа в роли финансового магната. Представителем сегодняшнего этапа развития является телефон iPhone 3Gs.

Кстати, у нас есть PDA версия Фишек.
Motorola DynaTAC 8000X 25 лет назад, 13 июня 1983 компания Motorola выпустила первый коммерческий мобильный телефон «DynaTAC 8000X». На разработку «DynaTAC 8000X» было потрачено более 10 лет и выделено более 100 миллионов американских долларов. «DynaTAC 8000X» весил 800 грамм, хранил 30 телефонных номеров, имел 1 мелодию и стоил 3995 американских долларов. В режиме разговора аккумулятора хватало почти на один час.

1989 год Motorola MicroTAC 9800X Первый по-настоящему портативный телефон. До его выпуска большинство сотовых телефонов предназначалось только для установки в автомобилях из-за своих габаритов, не подходящих для ношения в кармане.

Nokia 1011 Это был первый GSM телефон массового производства. Он выпускался вплоть до 1994 года.

1996 год Motorola StarTAC Первый складной сотовый телефон. К тому же он был в числе первых, имевших экран с ячейками.

Nokia 8110 Этот телефон получил еще одно название «телефон – банан» и стал популярен благодаря первому фильму «Матрица».

Коммуникатор Nokia 9000 Первая серия смартфонов с процессором Intel 386.

1998 год Nokia 9110i Этот телефон был повторением серии коммуникаторов Nokia и весил значительно меньше своего предшественника – смартфона.

Nokia 5110 Эта Nokia была очень популярен долгое время после выхода.

1999 год Nokia 8210 Пользователи любили за его симпатичный дизайн и не любили за тусклый экран.

Nokia 7110 Первый мобильный телефон с браузером WAP.

Nokia 5210 Этот телефон известен своей долговечностью и сменным корпусом с защитой от влаги.

Benefon Esc! Первая модель со встроенной системой GPS. В основном он продавался в Европе.

Nokia 3210 Было продано примерно 160 миллионов этих телефонов. Это первый аппарат со встроенной антенной (!) и функцией Т9, используемой при написании текстовых сообщений.

2000 год Ericsson R380 Характерным отличием модели R380 был черно-белый сенсорный экран, частично закрывающийся панелью.

Nokia 3310 А это настоящий хит! Им многие даже открывали пиво. Дубовый, неубиваемый телефон ) Было продано примерно 126 миллионов аппаратов 3310

2001 год Nokia 5510 Характерной чертой этого телефона является QWERTY-клавиатура. Также он мог держать в памяти до 64 Мб музыкальных файлов.

Nokia 8310 А этот аппарат имел инфракрасный порт, полностью функциональный календарь и радио FM (!).

Ericsson T39 Эта маленькая телефонная трубка была первым телефоном с технологией Bluetooth.

Ericsson T66 Эта миниатюрная модель от компании Ericsson была размером с сигарету (видимо, длиной).

Ericsson T68 Первый телефон Ericsson с цветным экраном.

Siemens S45 Первый мобильный телефон производства Siemens с функцией GPRS, а также оперативной памятью 360 Кб. На тот момент такой объем памяти считался большим.

2002 год Nokia 3510(i) Первый телефон Nokia, с помощью которого GPRS стал массово использоваться. Первый бюджетный многофункциональный телефон с цветным экраном.

Nokia 7650 Это первый телефон Nokia со встроенной камерой. «Засветился» в фильме «Особое мнение». Первый смартфон серии 60

Sony Ericsson P800 Этот смартфон характеризуется сенсорным экраном и объемом памяти до 128 Мб. Очень крутая модель была ☺ чуть ли не 1000 долларов стоила

Nokia 6100 Главными ее особенностями являются, пожалуй, красивый дизайн и тонкий корпус )

Nokia 6310i Модель 6310i быстро приобрела популярность в деловых кругах благодаря несложности в обращении и длительной работе аккумулятора.

Sanyo SCP-5300 Первый телефон со встроенной камерой. Несмотря на то, что изображение получалось низкого качества, он был первым в своем роде.

2003 год Nokia 1100 Примерно 200 миллионов телефонов этой чрезвычайно популярной модели было продано с момента ее выпуска в 2003 году. По слухам, стоимость этого телефона в криминальных кругах достигала 32000 долларов США, поскольку с помощью него можно было однократно перехватывать банковские пароли (видимо, это стоимость с уже украденными паролями, т.к проще такой в магазине купить за его номинальную стоимость:) ).

Nokia N-Gage Ответный вызов Nokia на игровое устройство Game Boy advance. Получив несколько похвал, этот телефон с игровой системой был предан забвению из-за неудобного интерфейса.

PalmOne Treo 600 Был популярен с 2003 по 2004 годы до тех пор, пока телефон BlackBerries не оказался на пике славы. Он сохранял заряд три или четыре дня и прекрасно сочетал в себе телефон, КПК, камеру и бизнес-средства на выбор.

Nokia 2100 Эта модель имела широкий ассортимент расцветок и отличалась монохромным экраном.

Nokia 6600 В народе прозван «пингвином». Один из первых телефонов Нокии с экраном, отображающим 65 тысяч цветов.

BlackBerry Quark 6210 Первый телефон, объединенный с КПК, компании Research In Motion.

BlackBerry 7210 Первый телефон с цветным экраном торговой марки BlackBerry.

Nokia 7600 Один из первых 3G-смартфонов.

2004 год Motorola Razor V3 На момент выпуска этот телефон стал эталоном глянцевого дизайн.

Sony Ericsson P910 Привлекательный смартфон с откидным флипом, qwerty-клавиатурой.

Nokia 7610 Первый смартфон компании Nokia с камерой, имеющей разрешение 1 мегапиксель.

Nokia 3220 Первый бюджетный телефон Nokia с EDGE.

Nokia 7280 В журнале Fortune этот телефон был в списке лучшей продукции 2004 года. Также его называли телефон – «помада».

2005 год Sony ericsson K750 Это один из первых телефонов, имеющих камеру 2мпкс и получивших широкое распространение в России

Nokia 1110 Этот телефон с технологией GSM выпускался как низкобюджетное устройство и приобрел популярность в развивающихся странах.

Nokia 6680 Один из первых 3G-смартфонов. Считался очень дорогим на момент выпуска.

HTC Universal Это был первый КПК-телефон с технологией 3G на базе Windows Mobile производства НТС.

Motorola RAZR V3 Magenta Этот ярко розовый телефон стал модной штучкой того времени.

2006 год Nokia N73 Этот весьма популярный смартфон продавался миллионами по всему миру и до сих пор широко используется, один из первых телефонов Nokia, обладающих камерой 3.2 млн пикс.

Motorola Q Убийца BlackBerry от Motorola.

BlackBerry Pearl Первый телефон компании RIM с разумным дизайном. Модель BlackBerry Pearl до сих пор есть в продаже.

KDDI Penck Эта модель со сказочным дизайном доступна только в Японии.

O2 XDA Flame Модель 02 XDA Flame – первый телефон-КПК с двухъядерным процессором.

Nokia E62 Одна из первых моделей Nokia с QWERTY-клавиатурой. Индекс ”E” обозначает принадлежность модели к бизнес-серии.

2007 год iPhone Первый iPhone был выпущен в июне 2007 года. В наличии у него имелся датчик с автоматическим вращением, сенсор технологии multi-touch с возможностью реагирования на несколько касаний, , тачскрин, который заменил традиционную раскладку клавиатуры QWERTY , превосходный дизайн, а также множество других характеристик, которые в значительной степени помогли компании Apple завоевать рынок.

LG Prada KE850 Телефон с сенсорным экраном завоевал награду Red Dot Design Award в 2007 году и получил звание “Лучший из лучших”.

LG Voyager Эта модель была разрекламирована компанией LG как телефон с функциями iPhone.

HTC Touch Ответ компании HTC на появление устройства iPhone.

Коммуникатор Nokia E90 Обладает двумя полноценными дисплеями, бизнес-серия.

Nokia N95 Отличительной характеристикой этого популярного смартфона компании Nokia был двойной слайдер, открывающийся в обе стороны. Этот смартфон Nokia был одним из первых с GPS

LG Shine Это телефон тоже получил награду Red Dot в 2007 году. Также он выпускался в расцветках «золото» и «титановый черный».

2008 год iPhone 3G Устройство iPhone 3G вышло в свет в июле 2008 года. Получил очень широкую распространенность в России. В молодежных кругах считается очень модно иметь iPhone, наверное, из-за его стоимости.

Телефон T-Mobile G1 Телефон G1 был первым аппаратом, выпущенным с рабочей системой Android, разработанной Google. Также он известен как HTC Dream. В апреле 2009 года было продано миллион этих устройств.

Nokia N96 Cмартфон компании Nokia с GPS.

Nokia 5800 XpressMusic Этот телефон дебютировал в фильме «Темный рыцарь». Якобы является «убийцей iPhone», обладает сравнительно небольшой стоимостью относительно своего конкурента.

BlackBerry Storm Эта модель выступала в качестве прямого конкурента аппарату iPhone 3G и стала первым телефоном производства компании RIM без клавиатурной раскладки QWERTY с сенсорным экраном.

BlackBerry Bold Компромиссное решение для желающих иметь модель Blackberry с технологией 3G и раскладкой QWERTY.

Nokia E63 Продолжении E-серии с qwerty-клавиатурой.

Nokia N79 Модель Nokia N79 имеет GPS, камеру с разрешением 5 мегапикселей с оптикой Carl Zeiss и линзами Tessar и многие другие характеристики.

HTC Touch Diamond Отличительной особенностью этого привлекательного смартфона является прочный сенсорный экран, пригодный для распознавания азиатских букв.

Nokia E71 Стальной корпус Nokia легко поместится на вашей ладони.

2009 год Prada II or LG KF900 Вторая попытка Prada, разработанного компанией LG. В этой модели появилась выдвигающаяся клавиатура с раскладкой QWERTY.

LG Arena Первый телефон производства LG с пользовательским интерфейсом типа 3D S-Class. Этот интерфейс ориентируется на то, как повернут телефон к пользователю,

HTC Magic Очередная модель компании HTC со рабочей системой Android, разработанной Google.

iPhone 3GS Буква «S» — от Speed, скорость. Новинка обладает новым процессором, 3-мегапиксельной камерой с автофокусом, поддержкой VGA-видео 30 кадров в секунду, цифровым компасом и многим другим

Смартфоны прочно вошли в нашу жизнь, позволяя поддерживать общение и став незаменимым средством для работы и творчества. В этой статье описано все о смартфоне, что нужно знать новому пользователю, включая информацию о его создании, устройстве и использовании.

История создания смартфонов

Идея придумать смартфон, появилась сразу после создания в 1990-х карманного персонального компьютера. Кто первый изобрел смартфон? Объединить коммуникатор и мобильный телефон впервые удалось компании IBM. Первый телефон, который был выпущен в виде концепта — это IBM Simon со встроенным органайзером. В последующие годы было выпущено еще три или четыре устройства, в каждом из которых производители приближались к заветной цели: OmniGo HP 700 LX, Nokia 2110, Nokia 9000.

Что такое смартфон

Определение из Википедии. В переводе с английского, «смарт» значит «умный» или «сообразительный». Значение слова «смартфон» понять несложно — это умный телефон с набором дополнительных функций.

Чем смартфон отличается от телефона

В мобильных телефонах, практически с самого их появления, были функции органайзера (будильник, заметки, календарь). Но производители старались его расширить. Так появился термин «смартфон» — двусоставное слово, образованное слиянием двух других: «смарт» и «фон».

В отличие от мобильных телефонов, смартфоны имеют более развитую операционную систему (Android, iOS, Windows), для которой разработчики могут писать программный код, реализуя новые идеи. После установки стороннего ПО возможности аппарата становятся еще шире.

Однако разница между обычным телефоном и смартфоном стерлась, поскольку большая часть устройств (если не говорить о самых дешевых аппаратах) открывают доступ в интернет, позволяют получать почту и оснащены прочими важными функциями.

Для чего нужен смартфон

Функции смартфона включают в себя не только возможность осуществлять звонки, как это было в случае с мобильным телефоном. Они подразумевают гораздо больше. Устройство можно использовать для серфинга в интернете, GPS-навигации, общения в социальных сетях, учебы, чтения книг, мобильной фотографии, детских развивающих видеоигр, а также обработки видео. Мобильный гаджет может вести подсчет пройденых шагов и следить за состоянием артериального давления. Он может быть использован для занятий спортом, включая бег, спортивную ходьбу и прыжки со скакалкой.

Как устроен смартфон

Возможно, впервые взяв в руки новый смартфон, вы размышляли над тем, из чего же он состоит. Существуют разные модификации, но основные элементы имеет любое устройство. Ниже рассмотрим каждую составляющую немного подробнее.

Корпус

Корпус устройства защищает внутренние компоненты, включая его основные элементы, от повреждений. Он обеспечивает более удобное взаимодействие пользователя с устройством. На корпусе расположены кнопки, сенсорное стекло для управления телефоном, а также порты для подключения наушников и зарядного устройства.

При изготовлении корпуса применяются различные материалы: стекло, керамика, металл и пластик. Различают следующие типы корпусов: моноблок (без движущихся частей), слайдер, раскладушка и сгибаемый. Последний вид все еще находится в разработке, поскольку создание эластичных гибких элементов все еще очень дорого, а значит нерентабельно с практической точки зрения.

Процессор и материнская плата

Без материнской платы с процессором (SoC) использование аппарата было бы невозможным. Печатная схема, содержит не только процессор, но и множество других важных элементов, например контролер заряда, LTE-модем, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, графический ускоритель.

Существует несколько основных производителей, которые занимаются разработкой собственных процессоров, поэтому большая часть смартфонов работают на их основе: MediaTek, Qualcomm, Samsung, Huawei, Apple.

Оперативная и основная память

Оперативная память (ОЗУ) — это энергозависимая память, используемая операционной системой, например Андроид, для временного хранения и обработки информации. Без ее участия все процессы и вычисления производились бы гораздо дольше, а многопоточный режим был бы невозможен. Среди поколений оперативной памяти существуют: LPDDR3, LPDDR4, LPDDR4X, LPDDR5. Каждое следующее поколение работает производительнее предыдущего. На момент написания статьи можно было найти мобильные устройства с ОЗУ от 1 до 16 ГБ.

Основная память, в отличие от оперативной, предназначена для долговременного хранения информации. На внутреннем накопителе находится прошивка, операционная система и системные программы. Сюда же можно сохранять видео, игры, музыку, изображения, документы.

Батарея

В качестве портативного источника энергии телефон использует встроенный аккумулятор. Он может быть съемным или несъемным — это зависит от модификации, используемого устройства. Большая часть всех мобильных аппаратов оснащаются литий-ионными батареями — они неприхотливы в использовании, не обладают эффектом «памяти» и не нуждаются в калибровке. После того как аккумулятор заряжен, он автоматически перестает получать заряд от зарядного.

Датчики и модули

Для полноценной работы мобильного устройства нужен соответствующий набор датчиков и модулей. Аппарат состоит из:

• Микрофонов. Большая часть аппаратов имеют два микрофона для записи стереозвука.
• Двух динамиков: один для разговоров, а второй для воспроизведения мультимедийных файлов.
• Основной и фронтальной камеры. Нужны для ведения фото и видеосъемки. Фронтальная камера, среди прочего используется для селфи-снимков и для общения по видеосвязи.
• Беспроводных модулей Wi-Fi, LTE, Bluetooth, IrDA, GPS, NFC, беспроводной зарядки.
• Датчика Хола, акселерометра, термодатчиков, шагомера, а также датчиков приближения и освещенности.

Все модули и датчики подключаются к материнской плате. Они работают благодаря вычислительной мощности процессора. С помощью дополнительных программ можно управлять ими, что в значительной степени расширяет функционал устройства.

Дисплей

Один из самых важных компонентов, без которого пользоваться мобильным устройством было бы невозможно — это экран. Все, что пользователь видит на нем обрабатывается внутренними компонентами. Существует два типа дисплеев, которые устанавливаются в мобильные телефоны:

• AMOLED, Super AMOLED — на основе светодиодов.
• IPS, PLS, TFT — на основе жидких кристаллов.

Основой всех жидкокристаллических дисплеев является LED-подсветка. Жидкие кристаллы играют роль фильтров, проходя через которые, белый свет изменяет свой цвет.

Однако, AMOLED-дисплеи работают по-другому. Здесь каждый пиксель — это отдельный светодиод, который может излучать тот или иной свет. Такие экраны более энергоэффективны, так как, если пиксели не работают, экран не потребляет энергию аккумулятора. Дисплеи, которые созданы на основе жидких кристаллов дешевле, поэтому устанавливаются в бюджетных устройствах.

Принцип работы

Мобильный процессор обрабатывает получаемую из оперативной и встроенной памяти информацию. Для работы беспроводных сетей используются соответствующие модули, а для комфортного взаимодействия с пользователем — дополнительные сенсоры. Аккумулятор заряжается от сети с помощью зарядного устройства и необходим в качестве источника питания.

Без камеры можно было бы обойтись. Однако, пользователи не видят смартфон без нее, поскольку она необходима для съемки. Базовые элементы расположены внутри корпуса, а на лицевой панели сенсорный дисплей позволяет вводить и получать необходимую информацию.

For the modern mobile phone, see Smartphone.

A mobile phone^[a] is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the switching systems of a mobile phone operator, which provides access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern mobile telephone services use a cellular network architecture and, therefore, mobile telephones are called cellular telephones or cell phones in North America. In addition to telephony, digital mobile phones (2G) support a variety of other services, such as text messaging, multimedia messagIng, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, video games and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only those capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer greatly advanced computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.^[1]

The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by Martin Cooper of Motorola in New York City in 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2 kilograms (4.4 lbs).^[2] In 1979, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) launched the world’s first cellular network in Japan.^[3] In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over seven billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.^[4] In the first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone developers worldwide were Samsung, Apple and Huawei; smartphone sales represented 78 percent of total mobile phone sales.^[5] For feature phones (slang: «dumbphones») as of 2016, the top-selling brands were Samsung, Nokia and Alcatel.^[6]

Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as it has been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of consumer technology.^[7] The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places, for example in the UK the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.^[8] Today mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,^[9] and in almost half the world’s countries, over 90% of the population own at least one.^[10]

History

A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a «pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone». Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships and trains. The race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in mobile telephony have been traced in successive «generations», starting with the early zeroth-generation (0G) services, such as Bell System’s Mobile Telephone Service and its successor, the Improved Mobile Telephone Service. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.

The first handheld cellular mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell^[11][12] and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing 2 kilograms (4.4 lb).^[2] The first commercial automated cellular network (1G) analog was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. This was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden.^[13] Several other countries then followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation (1G) systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone.

In 1991, the second-generation (2G) digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators. The GSM standard is a European initiative expressed at the CEPT («Conférence Européenne des Postes et Telecommunications», European Postal and Telecommunications conference). The Franco-German R&D cooperation demonstrated the technical feasibility, and in 1987 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between 13 European countries who agreed to launch a commercial service by 1991. The first version of the GSM (=2G) standard had 6,000 pages. The IEEE and RSE awarded to Thomas Haug and Philippe Dupuis the 2018 James Clerk Maxwell medal for their contributions to the first digital mobile telephone standard.^[14] In 2018, the GSM was used by over 5 billion people in over 220 countries. The GSM (2G) has evolved into 3G, 4G and 5G. The standardisation body for GSM started at the CEPT Working Group GSM (Group Special Mobile) in 1982 under the umbrella of CEPT. In 1988, ETSI was established and all CEPT standardization activities were transferred to ETSI. Working Group GSM became Technical Committee GSM. In 1991, it became Technical Committee SMG (Special Mobile Group) when ETSI tasked the committee with UMTS (3G).

In 2001, the third generation (3G) was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard.^[15] This was followed by 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access (HSPA) family, allowing UMTS networks to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity.

By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications, such as streaming media.^[16] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.

5G is a technology and term used in research papers and projects to denote the next major phase in mobile telecommunication standards beyond the 4G/IMT-Advanced standards. The term 5G is not officially used in any specification or official document yet made public by telecommunication companies or standardization bodies such as 3GPP, WiMAX Forum or ITU-R. New standards beyond 4G are currently being developed by standardization bodies, but they are at this time seen as under the 4G umbrella, not for a new mobile generation.

Types

Smartphone

Smartphones have a number of distinguishing features. The International Telecommunication Union measures those with Internet connection, which it calls Active Mobile-Broadband subscriptions (which includes tablets, etc.). In the developed world, smartphones have now overtaken the usage of earlier mobile systems. However, in the developing world, they account for around 50% of mobile telephony.

Feature phone

Feature phone is a term typically used as a retronym to describe mobile phones which are limited in capabilities in contrast to a modern smartphone. Feature phones typically provide voice calling and text messaging functionality, in addition to basic multimedia and Internet capabilities, and other services offered by the user’s wireless service provider. A feature phone has additional functions over and above a basic mobile phone, which is only capable of voice calling and text messaging.^[18][19] Feature phones and basic mobile phones tend to use a proprietary, custom-designed software and user interface. By contrast, smartphones generally use a mobile operating system that often shares common traits across devices.

Infrastructure

Mobile phones communicate with cell towers that are placed to give coverage across a telephone service area, which is divided up into ‘cells’. Each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, and will typically be covered by three towers placed at different locations. The cell towers are usually interconnected to each other and the phone network and the internet by wired connections. Due to bandwidth limitations each cell will have a maximum number of cell phones it can handle at once. The cells are therefore sized depending on the expected usage density, and may be much smaller in cities. In that case much lower transmitter powers are used to avoid broadcasting beyond the cell.

In order to handle the high traffic, multiple towers can be set up in the same area (using different frequencies). This can be done permanently or temporarily such as at special events like at the Super Bowl, Taste of Chicago, State Fair, NYC New Year’s Eve, hurricane hit cities, etc. where cell phone companies will bring a truck with equipment to host the abnormally high traffic with a portable cell.

Cellular can greatly increase the capacity of simultaneous wireless phone calls. While a phone company for example, has a license to 1,000 frequencies, each cell must use unique frequencies with each call using one of them when communicating. Because cells only slightly overlap, the same frequency can be reused. Example cell one uses frequency 1–500, next door cell uses frequency 501–1,000, next door can reuse frequency 1–500. Cells one and three are not «touching» and do not overlap/communicate so each can reuse the same frequencies.^{[citation needed]}

Capacity was further increased when phone companies implemented digital networks. With digital, one frequency can host multiple simultaneous calls.

As a phone moves around, a phone will «hand off» — automatically disconnect and reconnect to the tower of another cell that gives the best reception.

Additionally, short-range Wi-Fi infrastructure is often used by smartphones as much as possible as it offloads traffic from cell networks on to local area networks.

Hardware

The common components found on all mobile phones are:

• A central processing unit (CPU), the processor of phones. The CPU is a microprocessor fabricated on a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip.
• A battery, providing the power source for the phone functions. A modern handset typically uses a lithium-ion battery (LIB), whereas older handsets used nickel–metal hydride (Ni–MH) batteries.
• An input mechanism to allow the user to interact with the phone. These are a keypad for feature phones, and touch screens for most smartphones (typically with capacitive sensing).
• A display which echoes the user’s typing, and displays text messages, contacts, and more. The display is typically either a liquid-crystal display (LCD) or organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display.
• Speakers for sound.
• Subscriber identity module (SIM) cards and removable user identity module (R-UIM) cards.
• A hardware notification LED on some phones

Low-end mobile phones are often referred to as feature phones and offer basic telephony. Handsets with more advanced computing ability through the use of native software applications are known as smartphones.

Central processing unit

Mobile phones have central processing units (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments.

Mobile CPU performance depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz)^[20] but also the memory hierarchy also greatly affects overall performance. Because of these problems, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.

Display

One of the main characteristics of phones is the screen. Depending on the device’s type and design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device’s front surface. Many smartphone displays have an aspect ratio of 16:9, but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017.

Screen sizes are often measured in diagonal inches or millimeters; feature phones generally have screen sizes below 90 millimetres (3.5 in). Phones with screens larger than 130 millimetres (5.2 in) are often called «phablets.» Smartphones with screens over 115 millimetres (4.5 in) in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and «edge-to-edge» designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.^[21][22][23]

Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung,^[24] and Apple’s «3D Touch» system.

Sound

In sound, smartphones and feature phones vary little. Some audio-quality enhancing features, such as Voice over LTE and HD Voice, have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in long-distance calls.^[25][26] Audio quality can be improved using a VoIP application over WiFi.^[27] Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a speakerphone feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear.

Battery

The average phone battery lasts 2–3 years at best. Many of the wireless devices use a Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery, which charges 500–2500 times, depending on how users take care of the battery and the charging techniques used.^[28] It is only natural for these rechargeable batteries to chemically age, which is why the performance of the battery when used for a year or two will begin to deteriorate. Battery life can be extended by draining it regularly, not overcharging it, and keeping it away from heat.^[29][30]

SIM card

Mobile phones require a small microchip called a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM card, in order to function. The SIM card is approximately the size of a small postage stamp and is usually placed underneath the battery in the rear of the unit. The SIM securely stores the service-subscriber key (IMSI) and the K_i used to identify and authenticate the user of the mobile phone. The SIM card allows users to change phones by simply removing the SIM card from one mobile phone and inserting it into another mobile phone or broadband telephony device, provided that this is not prevented by a SIM lock. The first SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless network operator Radiolinja.^{[citation needed]}

A hybrid mobile phone can hold up to four SIM cards, with a phone having a different device identifier for each SIM Card. SIM and R-UIM cards may be mixed together to allow both GSM and CDMA networks to be accessed. From 2010 onwards, such phones became popular in emerging markets,^[31] and this was attributed to the desire to obtain the lowest calling costs.

When the removal of a SIM card is detected by the operating system, it may deny further operation until a reboot.^[32]

Software

Software platforms

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)

Feature phones have basic software platforms. Smartphones have advanced software platforms. Android OS has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since 2011.

Mobile app

A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term «app» is a shortening of the term «software application».

Messaging

A common data application on mobile phones is Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging. The first SMS message was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK while the first person-to-person SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993. The first mobile news service, delivered via SMS, was launched in Finland in 2000,^[33] and subsequently many organizations provided «on-demand» and «instant» news services by SMS. Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was introduced in March 2002.^[34]

Application stores

The introduction of Apple’s App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted online distribution for third-party applications (software and computer programs) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including video games, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on third-party sources providing applications for multiple platforms, such as GetJar, Handango, Handmark, and PocketGear. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google’s Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store), RIM’s BlackBerry App World, or Android-related app stores like Aptoide, Cafe Bazaar, F-Droid, GetJar, and Opera Mobile Store. In February 2014, 93% of mobile developers were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.^[35]

Sales

By manufacturer

Market share of top-five worldwide mobile phone vendors, Q2 2022

As of 2022, the top five manufacturers worldwide were Samsung (21%), Apple (16%), Xiaomi (13%), Oppo (10%), and Vivo (9%).^[37]

History

From 1983 to 1998, Motorola was market leader in mobile phones. Nokia was the market leader in mobile phones from 1998 to 2012.^[38] In Q1 2012, Samsung surpassed Nokia, selling 93.5 million units as against Nokia’s 82.7 million units. Samsung has retained its top position since then.

Aside from Motorola, European brands such as Nokia, Siemens and Ericsson once held large sway over the global mobile phone market, and many new technologies were pioneered in Europe. By 2010, the influence of European companies had significantly decreased due to fierce competition from American and Asian companies, to where most technical innovation had shifted.^[39][40] Apple and Google, both of the United States, also came to dominate mobile phone software.^[39]

By mobile phone operator

The world’s largest individual mobile operator by number of subscribers is China Mobile, which has over 902 million mobile phone subscribers as of June 2018.^[41] Over 50 mobile operators have over ten million subscribers each, and over 150 mobile operators had at least one million subscribers by the end of 2009.^[42] In 2014, there were more than seven billion mobile phone subscribers worldwide, a number that is expected to keep growing.

Use

Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, such as keeping in touch with family members, for conducting business, and in order to have access to a telephone in the event of an emergency. Some people carry more than one mobile phone for different purposes, such as for business and personal use. Multiple SIM cards may be used to take advantage of the benefits of different calling plans. For example, a particular plan might provide for cheaper local calls, long-distance calls, international calls, or roaming.

The mobile phone has been used in a variety of diverse contexts in society. For example:

• A study by Motorola found that one in ten mobile phone subscribers have a second phone that is often kept secret from other family members. These phones may be used to engage in such activities as extramarital affairs or clandestine business dealings.^[43]
• Some organizations assist victims of domestic violence by providing mobile phones for use in emergencies. These are often refurbished phones.^[44]
• The advent of widespread text-messaging has resulted in the cell phone novel, the first literary genre to emerge from the cellular age, via text messaging to a website that collects the novels as a whole.^[45]
• Mobile telephony also facilitates activism and citizen journalism.
• The United Nations reported that mobile phones have spread faster than any other form of technology and can improve the livelihood of the poorest people in developing countries, by providing access to information in places where landlines or the Internet are not available, especially in the least developed countries. Use of mobile phones also spawns a wealth of micro-enterprises, by providing such work as selling airtime on the streets and repairing or refurbishing handsets.^[46]
• In Mali and other African countries, people used to travel from village to village to let friends and relatives know about weddings, births, and other events. This can now be avoided in areas with mobile phone coverage, which are usually more extensive than areas with just land-line penetration.
• The TV industry has recently started using mobile phones to drive live TV viewing through mobile apps, advertising, social TV, and mobile TV.^[47] It is estimated that 86% of Americans use their mobile phone while watching TV.
• In some parts of the world, mobile phone sharing is common. Cell phone sharing is prevalent in urban India, as families and groups of friends often share one or more mobile phones among their members. There are obvious economic benefits, but often familial customs and traditional gender roles play a part.^[48] It is common for a village to have access to only one mobile phone, perhaps owned by a teacher or missionary, which is available to all members of the village for necessary calls.^[49]

Content distribution

In 1998, one of the first examples of distributing and selling media content through the mobile phone was the sale of ringtones by Radiolinja in Finland. Soon afterwards, other media content appeared, such as news, video games, jokes, horoscopes, TV content and advertising. Most early content for mobile phones tended to be copies of legacy media, such as banner advertisements or TV news highlight video clips. Recently, unique content for mobile phones has been emerging, from ringtones and ringback tones to mobisodes, video content that has been produced exclusively for mobile phones.^{[citation needed]}

Mobile banking and payment

In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide mobile banking services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya’s M-PESA mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator Safaricom to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies.

Branchless banking has also been successful in South Africa and the Philippines. A pilot project in Bali was launched in 2011 by the International Finance Corporation and an Indonesian bank, Bank Mandiri.^[50]

Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in Espoo were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country’s first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators Globe and Smart.^{[citation needed]}

Some mobile phones can make mobile payments via direct mobile billing schemes, or through contactless payments if the phone and the point of sale support near field communication (NFC).^[51] Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.^[52][53]

Mobile tracking

Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not) using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the mobile phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.^[54][55]

The movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and, if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their governments. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.^[54]

China has proposed using this technology to track the commuting patterns of Beijing city residents.^[56] In the UK and US, law enforcement and intelligence services use mobile phones to perform surveillance operations.^[57]

Hackers have been able to track a phone’s location, read messages, and record calls, through obtaining a subscribers phone number.^[58]

While driving

Mobile phone use while driving, including talking on the phone, texting, or operating other phone features, is common but controversial. It is widely considered dangerous due to distracted driving. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of accidents. In September 2010, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by cell phones. In March 2011, a U.S. insurance company, State Farm Insurance, announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.^[59] Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal, and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free use of a mobile phone (which uses a speakerphone) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France and in many U.S. states, only handheld phone use is banned while hands-free use is permitted.

A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.^[60]
The scientific literature on the dangers of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or texting while driving, is limited. A simulation study at the University of Utah found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.^[61]

Due to the increasing complexity of mobile phones, they are often more like mobile computers in their available uses. This has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the mobile phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a phone call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone’s incorporated controls for car stereo, GPS or satnav.

A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of mobile phone use while cycling and its effects on behaviour and safety.^[62] In 2013, a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their cellphones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.^[63] A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using mobile phones while driving.^[64]

Accidents involving a driver being distracted by talking on a mobile phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the United Kingdom, from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a hand-held mobile phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.^[65] This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.^[66] Japan prohibits all mobile phone use while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned hand-held cell phone use since 1 November 2009. Many states in the United States have banned texting on cell phones while driving. Illinois became the 17th American state to enforce this law.^[67] As of July 2010, 30 states had banned texting while driving, with Kentucky becoming the most recent addition on 15 July.^[68]

Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the United States. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile communication devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992 when first law was passed, through 1 December 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld), targeted populations, and exemptions.^[69]

In 2010, an estimated 1500 pedestrians were injured in the US while using a cellphone and some jurisdictions have attempted to ban pedestrians from using their cellphones.^[70][71]

Health effects

The effect of mobile phone radiation on human health is the subject of recent^[when?] interest and study, as a result of the enormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the world. Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range, which some believe may be harmful to human health. A large body of research exists, both epidemiological and experimental, in non-human animals and in humans. The majority of this research shows no definite causative relationship between exposure to mobile phones and harmful biological effects in humans. This is often paraphrased simply as the balance of evidence showing no harm to humans from mobile phones, although a significant number of individual studies do suggest such a relationship, or are inconclusive. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation.^{[citation needed]}

On 31 May 2011, the World Health Organization stated that mobile phone use may possibly represent a long-term health risk,^[72][73] classifying mobile phone radiation as «possibly carcinogenic to humans» after a team of scientists reviewed studies on mobile phone safety.^[74] The mobile phone is in category 2B, which ranks it alongside coffee and other possibly carcinogenic substances.^[75][76]

Some recent^[when?] studies have found an association between mobile phone use and certain kinds of brain and salivary gland tumors. Lennart Hardell and other authors of a 2009 meta-analysis of 11 studies from peer-reviewed journals concluded that cell phone usage for at least ten years «approximately doubles the risk of being diagnosed with a brain tumor on the same (‘ipsilateral’) side of the head as that preferred for cell phone use».^[77]

One study of past mobile phone use cited in the report showed a «40% increased risk for gliomas (brain cancer) in the highest category of heavy users (reported average: 30 minutes per day over a 10‐year period)».^[78] This is a reversal of the study’s prior position that cancer was unlikely to be caused by cellular phones or their base stations and that reviews had found no convincing evidence for other health effects.^[73][79] However, a study published 24 March 2012, in the British Medical Journal questioned these estimates because the increase in brain cancers has not paralleled the increase in mobile phone use.^[80] Certain countries, including France, have warned against the use of mobile phones by minors in particular, due to health risk uncertainties.^[81] Mobile pollution by transmitting electromagnetic waves can be decreased up to 90% by adopting the circuit as designed in mobile phone and mobile exchange.^[82]

In May 2016, preliminary findings of a long-term study by the U.S. government suggested that radio-frequency (RF) radiation, the type emitted by cell phones, can cause cancer.^[83][84]

Educational impact

A study by the London School of Economics found that banning mobile phones in schools could increase pupils’ academic performance, providing benefits equal to one extra week of schooling per year.^[85]

Electronic waste regulation

Studies have shown that around 40–50% of the environmental impact of mobile phones occurs during the manufacture of their printed wiring boards and integrated circuits.^[86]

The average user replaces their mobile phone every 11 to 18 months,^[87] and the discarded phones then contribute to electronic waste. Mobile phone manufacturers within Europe are subject to the WEEE directive, and Australia has introduced a mobile phone recycling scheme.^[88]

Apple Inc. had an advanced robotic disassembler and sorter called Liam specifically for recycling outdated or broken iPhones.^[89]

Theft

According to the Federal Communications Commission, one out of three robberies involve the theft of a cellular phone.^{[citation needed]} Police data in San Francisco show that half of all robberies in 2012 were thefts of cellular phones.^{[citation needed]} An online petition on Change.org, called Secure our Smartphones, urged smartphone manufacturers to install kill switches in their devices to make them unusable if stolen. The petition is part of a joint effort by New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman and San Francisco District Attorney George Gascón and was directed to the CEOs of the major smartphone manufacturers and telecommunication carriers.^[90] On 10 June 2013, Apple announced that it would install a «kill switch» on its next iPhone operating system, due to debut in October 2013.^[91]

All mobile phones have a unique identifier called IMEI. Anyone can report their phone as lost or stolen with their Telecom Carrier, and the IMEI would be blacklisted with a central registry.^[92] Telecom carriers, depending upon local regulation can or must implement blocking of blacklisted phones in their network. There are, however, a number of ways to circumvent a blacklist. One method is to send the phone to a country where the telecom carriers are not required to implement the blacklisting and sell it there,^[93] another involves altering the phone’s IMEI number.^[94] Even so, mobile phones typically have less value on the second-hand market if the phones original IMEI is blacklisted.

Conflict minerals

Demand for metals used in mobile phones and other electronics fuelled the Second Congo War, which claimed almost 5.5 million lives.^[95] In a 2012 news story, The Guardian reported: «In unsafe mines deep underground in eastern Congo, children are working to extract minerals essential for the electronics industry. The profits from the minerals finance the bloodiest conflict since the second world war; the war has lasted nearly 20 years and has recently flared up again. For the last 15 years, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been a major source of natural resources for the mobile phone industry.»^[96] The company Fairphone has worked to develop a mobile phone that does not contain conflict minerals.^{[citation needed]}

Kosher phones

Due to concerns by the Orthodox Jewish rabbinate in Britain that texting by youths could waste time and lead to «immodest» communication, the rabbinate recommended that phones with text-messaging capability not be used by children; to address this, they gave their official approval to a brand of «Kosher» phones with no texting capabilities. Although these phones are intended to prevent immodesty, some vendors report good sales to adults who prefer the simplicity of the devices; other Orthodox Jews question the need for them.^[97]

In Israel, similar phones to kosher phones with restricted features exist to observe the sabbath; under Orthodox Judaism, the use of any electrical device is generally prohibited during this time, other than to save lives, or reduce the risk of death or similar needs. Such phones are approved for use by essential workers, such as health, security, and public service workers.^[98]

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

• «How Cell Phones Work» at HowStuffWorks
• «The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone», 15 photos with captions from Time magazine
• Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world—a video documentary by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

For the modern mobile phone, see Smartphone.

A mobile phone^[a] is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the switching systems of a mobile phone operator, which provides access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern mobile telephone services use a cellular network architecture and, therefore, mobile telephones are called cellular telephones or cell phones in North America. In addition to telephony, digital mobile phones (2G) support a variety of other services, such as text messaging, multimedia messagIng, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, video games and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only those capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer greatly advanced computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.^[1]

The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by Martin Cooper of Motorola in New York City in 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2 kilograms (4.4 lbs).^[2] In 1979, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) launched the world’s first cellular network in Japan.^[3] In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over seven billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.^[4] In the first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone developers worldwide were Samsung, Apple and Huawei; smartphone sales represented 78 percent of total mobile phone sales.^[5] For feature phones (slang: «dumbphones») as of 2016, the top-selling brands were Samsung, Nokia and Alcatel.^[6]

Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as it has been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of consumer technology.^[7] The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places, for example in the UK the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.^[8] Today mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,^[9] and in almost half the world’s countries, over 90% of the population own at least one.^[10]

History

A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a «pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone». Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships and trains. The race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in mobile telephony have been traced in successive «generations», starting with the early zeroth-generation (0G) services, such as Bell System’s Mobile Telephone Service and its successor, the Improved Mobile Telephone Service. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.

The first handheld cellular mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell^[11][12] and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing 2 kilograms (4.4 lb).^[2] The first commercial automated cellular network (1G) analog was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. This was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden.^[13] Several other countries then followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation (1G) systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone.

In 1991, the second-generation (2G) digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators. The GSM standard is a European initiative expressed at the CEPT («Conférence Européenne des Postes et Telecommunications», European Postal and Telecommunications conference). The Franco-German R&D cooperation demonstrated the technical feasibility, and in 1987 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between 13 European countries who agreed to launch a commercial service by 1991. The first version of the GSM (=2G) standard had 6,000 pages. The IEEE and RSE awarded to Thomas Haug and Philippe Dupuis the 2018 James Clerk Maxwell medal for their contributions to the first digital mobile telephone standard.^[14] In 2018, the GSM was used by over 5 billion people in over 220 countries. The GSM (2G) has evolved into 3G, 4G and 5G. The standardisation body for GSM started at the CEPT Working Group GSM (Group Special Mobile) in 1982 under the umbrella of CEPT. In 1988, ETSI was established and all CEPT standardization activities were transferred to ETSI. Working Group GSM became Technical Committee GSM. In 1991, it became Technical Committee SMG (Special Mobile Group) when ETSI tasked the committee with UMTS (3G).

In 2001, the third generation (3G) was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard.^[15] This was followed by 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access (HSPA) family, allowing UMTS networks to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity.

By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications, such as streaming media.^[16] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.

5G is a technology and term used in research papers and projects to denote the next major phase in mobile telecommunication standards beyond the 4G/IMT-Advanced standards. The term 5G is not officially used in any specification or official document yet made public by telecommunication companies or standardization bodies such as 3GPP, WiMAX Forum or ITU-R. New standards beyond 4G are currently being developed by standardization bodies, but they are at this time seen as under the 4G umbrella, not for a new mobile generation.

Types

Smartphone

Smartphones have a number of distinguishing features. The International Telecommunication Union measures those with Internet connection, which it calls Active Mobile-Broadband subscriptions (which includes tablets, etc.). In the developed world, smartphones have now overtaken the usage of earlier mobile systems. However, in the developing world, they account for around 50% of mobile telephony.

Feature phone

Feature phone is a term typically used as a retronym to describe mobile phones which are limited in capabilities in contrast to a modern smartphone. Feature phones typically provide voice calling and text messaging functionality, in addition to basic multimedia and Internet capabilities, and other services offered by the user’s wireless service provider. A feature phone has additional functions over and above a basic mobile phone, which is only capable of voice calling and text messaging.^[18][19] Feature phones and basic mobile phones tend to use a proprietary, custom-designed software and user interface. By contrast, smartphones generally use a mobile operating system that often shares common traits across devices.

Infrastructure

Mobile phones communicate with cell towers that are placed to give coverage across a telephone service area, which is divided up into ‘cells’. Each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, and will typically be covered by three towers placed at different locations. The cell towers are usually interconnected to each other and the phone network and the internet by wired connections. Due to bandwidth limitations each cell will have a maximum number of cell phones it can handle at once. The cells are therefore sized depending on the expected usage density, and may be much smaller in cities. In that case much lower transmitter powers are used to avoid broadcasting beyond the cell.

In order to handle the high traffic, multiple towers can be set up in the same area (using different frequencies). This can be done permanently or temporarily such as at special events like at the Super Bowl, Taste of Chicago, State Fair, NYC New Year’s Eve, hurricane hit cities, etc. where cell phone companies will bring a truck with equipment to host the abnormally high traffic with a portable cell.

Cellular can greatly increase the capacity of simultaneous wireless phone calls. While a phone company for example, has a license to 1,000 frequencies, each cell must use unique frequencies with each call using one of them when communicating. Because cells only slightly overlap, the same frequency can be reused. Example cell one uses frequency 1–500, next door cell uses frequency 501–1,000, next door can reuse frequency 1–500. Cells one and three are not «touching» and do not overlap/communicate so each can reuse the same frequencies.^{[citation needed]}

Capacity was further increased when phone companies implemented digital networks. With digital, one frequency can host multiple simultaneous calls.

As a phone moves around, a phone will «hand off» — automatically disconnect and reconnect to the tower of another cell that gives the best reception.

Additionally, short-range Wi-Fi infrastructure is often used by smartphones as much as possible as it offloads traffic from cell networks on to local area networks.

Hardware

The common components found on all mobile phones are:

• A central processing unit (CPU), the processor of phones. The CPU is a microprocessor fabricated on a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip.
• A battery, providing the power source for the phone functions. A modern handset typically uses a lithium-ion battery (LIB), whereas older handsets used nickel–metal hydride (Ni–MH) batteries.
• An input mechanism to allow the user to interact with the phone. These are a keypad for feature phones, and touch screens for most smartphones (typically with capacitive sensing).
• A display which echoes the user’s typing, and displays text messages, contacts, and more. The display is typically either a liquid-crystal display (LCD) or organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display.
• Speakers for sound.
• Subscriber identity module (SIM) cards and removable user identity module (R-UIM) cards.
• A hardware notification LED on some phones

Low-end mobile phones are often referred to as feature phones and offer basic telephony. Handsets with more advanced computing ability through the use of native software applications are known as smartphones.

Central processing unit

Mobile phones have central processing units (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments.

Mobile CPU performance depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz)^[20] but also the memory hierarchy also greatly affects overall performance. Because of these problems, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.

Display

One of the main characteristics of phones is the screen. Depending on the device’s type and design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device’s front surface. Many smartphone displays have an aspect ratio of 16:9, but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017.

Screen sizes are often measured in diagonal inches or millimeters; feature phones generally have screen sizes below 90 millimetres (3.5 in). Phones with screens larger than 130 millimetres (5.2 in) are often called «phablets.» Smartphones with screens over 115 millimetres (4.5 in) in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and «edge-to-edge» designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.^[21][22][23]

Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung,^[24] and Apple’s «3D Touch» system.

Sound

In sound, smartphones and feature phones vary little. Some audio-quality enhancing features, such as Voice over LTE and HD Voice, have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in long-distance calls.^[25][26] Audio quality can be improved using a VoIP application over WiFi.^[27] Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a speakerphone feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear.

Battery

The average phone battery lasts 2–3 years at best. Many of the wireless devices use a Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery, which charges 500–2500 times, depending on how users take care of the battery and the charging techniques used.^[28] It is only natural for these rechargeable batteries to chemically age, which is why the performance of the battery when used for a year or two will begin to deteriorate. Battery life can be extended by draining it regularly, not overcharging it, and keeping it away from heat.^[29][30]

SIM card

Mobile phones require a small microchip called a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM card, in order to function. The SIM card is approximately the size of a small postage stamp and is usually placed underneath the battery in the rear of the unit. The SIM securely stores the service-subscriber key (IMSI) and the K_i used to identify and authenticate the user of the mobile phone. The SIM card allows users to change phones by simply removing the SIM card from one mobile phone and inserting it into another mobile phone or broadband telephony device, provided that this is not prevented by a SIM lock. The first SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless network operator Radiolinja.^{[citation needed]}

A hybrid mobile phone can hold up to four SIM cards, with a phone having a different device identifier for each SIM Card. SIM and R-UIM cards may be mixed together to allow both GSM and CDMA networks to be accessed. From 2010 onwards, such phones became popular in emerging markets,^[31] and this was attributed to the desire to obtain the lowest calling costs.

When the removal of a SIM card is detected by the operating system, it may deny further operation until a reboot.^[32]

Software

Software platforms

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)

Feature phones have basic software platforms. Smartphones have advanced software platforms. Android OS has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since 2011.

Mobile app

A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term «app» is a shortening of the term «software application».

Messaging

A common data application on mobile phones is Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging. The first SMS message was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK while the first person-to-person SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993. The first mobile news service, delivered via SMS, was launched in Finland in 2000,^[33] and subsequently many organizations provided «on-demand» and «instant» news services by SMS. Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was introduced in March 2002.^[34]

Application stores

The introduction of Apple’s App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted online distribution for third-party applications (software and computer programs) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including video games, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on third-party sources providing applications for multiple platforms, such as GetJar, Handango, Handmark, and PocketGear. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google’s Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store), RIM’s BlackBerry App World, or Android-related app stores like Aptoide, Cafe Bazaar, F-Droid, GetJar, and Opera Mobile Store. In February 2014, 93% of mobile developers were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.^[35]

Sales

By manufacturer

Market share of top-five worldwide mobile phone vendors, Q2 2022

As of 2022, the top five manufacturers worldwide were Samsung (21%), Apple (16%), Xiaomi (13%), Oppo (10%), and Vivo (9%).^[37]

History

From 1983 to 1998, Motorola was market leader in mobile phones. Nokia was the market leader in mobile phones from 1998 to 2012.^[38] In Q1 2012, Samsung surpassed Nokia, selling 93.5 million units as against Nokia’s 82.7 million units. Samsung has retained its top position since then.

Aside from Motorola, European brands such as Nokia, Siemens and Ericsson once held large sway over the global mobile phone market, and many new technologies were pioneered in Europe. By 2010, the influence of European companies had significantly decreased due to fierce competition from American and Asian companies, to where most technical innovation had shifted.^[39][40] Apple and Google, both of the United States, also came to dominate mobile phone software.^[39]

By mobile phone operator

The world’s largest individual mobile operator by number of subscribers is China Mobile, which has over 902 million mobile phone subscribers as of June 2018.^[41] Over 50 mobile operators have over ten million subscribers each, and over 150 mobile operators had at least one million subscribers by the end of 2009.^[42] In 2014, there were more than seven billion mobile phone subscribers worldwide, a number that is expected to keep growing.

Use

Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, such as keeping in touch with family members, for conducting business, and in order to have access to a telephone in the event of an emergency. Some people carry more than one mobile phone for different purposes, such as for business and personal use. Multiple SIM cards may be used to take advantage of the benefits of different calling plans. For example, a particular plan might provide for cheaper local calls, long-distance calls, international calls, or roaming.

The mobile phone has been used in a variety of diverse contexts in society. For example:

• A study by Motorola found that one in ten mobile phone subscribers have a second phone that is often kept secret from other family members. These phones may be used to engage in such activities as extramarital affairs or clandestine business dealings.^[43]
• Some organizations assist victims of domestic violence by providing mobile phones for use in emergencies. These are often refurbished phones.^[44]
• The advent of widespread text-messaging has resulted in the cell phone novel, the first literary genre to emerge from the cellular age, via text messaging to a website that collects the novels as a whole.^[45]
• Mobile telephony also facilitates activism and citizen journalism.
• The United Nations reported that mobile phones have spread faster than any other form of technology and can improve the livelihood of the poorest people in developing countries, by providing access to information in places where landlines or the Internet are not available, especially in the least developed countries. Use of mobile phones also spawns a wealth of micro-enterprises, by providing such work as selling airtime on the streets and repairing or refurbishing handsets.^[46]
• In Mali and other African countries, people used to travel from village to village to let friends and relatives know about weddings, births, and other events. This can now be avoided in areas with mobile phone coverage, which are usually more extensive than areas with just land-line penetration.
• The TV industry has recently started using mobile phones to drive live TV viewing through mobile apps, advertising, social TV, and mobile TV.^[47] It is estimated that 86% of Americans use their mobile phone while watching TV.
• In some parts of the world, mobile phone sharing is common. Cell phone sharing is prevalent in urban India, as families and groups of friends often share one or more mobile phones among their members. There are obvious economic benefits, but often familial customs and traditional gender roles play a part.^[48] It is common for a village to have access to only one mobile phone, perhaps owned by a teacher or missionary, which is available to all members of the village for necessary calls.^[49]

Content distribution

In 1998, one of the first examples of distributing and selling media content through the mobile phone was the sale of ringtones by Radiolinja in Finland. Soon afterwards, other media content appeared, such as news, video games, jokes, horoscopes, TV content and advertising. Most early content for mobile phones tended to be copies of legacy media, such as banner advertisements or TV news highlight video clips. Recently, unique content for mobile phones has been emerging, from ringtones and ringback tones to mobisodes, video content that has been produced exclusively for mobile phones.^{[citation needed]}

Mobile banking and payment

In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide mobile banking services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya’s M-PESA mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator Safaricom to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies.

Branchless banking has also been successful in South Africa and the Philippines. A pilot project in Bali was launched in 2011 by the International Finance Corporation and an Indonesian bank, Bank Mandiri.^[50]

Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in Espoo were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country’s first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators Globe and Smart.^{[citation needed]}

Some mobile phones can make mobile payments via direct mobile billing schemes, or through contactless payments if the phone and the point of sale support near field communication (NFC).^[51] Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.^[52][53]

Mobile tracking

Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not) using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the mobile phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.^[54][55]

The movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and, if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their governments. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.^[54]

China has proposed using this technology to track the commuting patterns of Beijing city residents.^[56] In the UK and US, law enforcement and intelligence services use mobile phones to perform surveillance operations.^[57]

Hackers have been able to track a phone’s location, read messages, and record calls, through obtaining a subscribers phone number.^[58]

While driving

Mobile phone use while driving, including talking on the phone, texting, or operating other phone features, is common but controversial. It is widely considered dangerous due to distracted driving. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of accidents. In September 2010, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by cell phones. In March 2011, a U.S. insurance company, State Farm Insurance, announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.^[59] Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal, and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free use of a mobile phone (which uses a speakerphone) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France and in many U.S. states, only handheld phone use is banned while hands-free use is permitted.

A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.^[60]
The scientific literature on the dangers of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or texting while driving, is limited. A simulation study at the University of Utah found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.^[61]

Due to the increasing complexity of mobile phones, they are often more like mobile computers in their available uses. This has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the mobile phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a phone call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone’s incorporated controls for car stereo, GPS or satnav.

A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of mobile phone use while cycling and its effects on behaviour and safety.^[62] In 2013, a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their cellphones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.^[63] A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using mobile phones while driving.^[64]

Accidents involving a driver being distracted by talking on a mobile phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the United Kingdom, from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a hand-held mobile phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.^[65] This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.^[66] Japan prohibits all mobile phone use while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned hand-held cell phone use since 1 November 2009. Many states in the United States have banned texting on cell phones while driving. Illinois became the 17th American state to enforce this law.^[67] As of July 2010, 30 states had banned texting while driving, with Kentucky becoming the most recent addition on 15 July.^[68]

Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the United States. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile communication devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992 when first law was passed, through 1 December 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld), targeted populations, and exemptions.^[69]

In 2010, an estimated 1500 pedestrians were injured in the US while using a cellphone and some jurisdictions have attempted to ban pedestrians from using their cellphones.^[70][71]

Health effects

The effect of mobile phone radiation on human health is the subject of recent^[when?] interest and study, as a result of the enormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the world. Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range, which some believe may be harmful to human health. A large body of research exists, both epidemiological and experimental, in non-human animals and in humans. The majority of this research shows no definite causative relationship between exposure to mobile phones and harmful biological effects in humans. This is often paraphrased simply as the balance of evidence showing no harm to humans from mobile phones, although a significant number of individual studies do suggest such a relationship, or are inconclusive. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation.^{[citation needed]}

On 31 May 2011, the World Health Organization stated that mobile phone use may possibly represent a long-term health risk,^[72][73] classifying mobile phone radiation as «possibly carcinogenic to humans» after a team of scientists reviewed studies on mobile phone safety.^[74] The mobile phone is in category 2B, which ranks it alongside coffee and other possibly carcinogenic substances.^[75][76]

Some recent^[when?] studies have found an association between mobile phone use and certain kinds of brain and salivary gland tumors. Lennart Hardell and other authors of a 2009 meta-analysis of 11 studies from peer-reviewed journals concluded that cell phone usage for at least ten years «approximately doubles the risk of being diagnosed with a brain tumor on the same (‘ipsilateral’) side of the head as that preferred for cell phone use».^[77]

One study of past mobile phone use cited in the report showed a «40% increased risk for gliomas (brain cancer) in the highest category of heavy users (reported average: 30 minutes per day over a 10‐year period)».^[78] This is a reversal of the study’s prior position that cancer was unlikely to be caused by cellular phones or their base stations and that reviews had found no convincing evidence for other health effects.^[73][79] However, a study published 24 March 2012, in the British Medical Journal questioned these estimates because the increase in brain cancers has not paralleled the increase in mobile phone use.^[80] Certain countries, including France, have warned against the use of mobile phones by minors in particular, due to health risk uncertainties.^[81] Mobile pollution by transmitting electromagnetic waves can be decreased up to 90% by adopting the circuit as designed in mobile phone and mobile exchange.^[82]

In May 2016, preliminary findings of a long-term study by the U.S. government suggested that radio-frequency (RF) radiation, the type emitted by cell phones, can cause cancer.^[83][84]

Educational impact

A study by the London School of Economics found that banning mobile phones in schools could increase pupils’ academic performance, providing benefits equal to one extra week of schooling per year.^[85]

Electronic waste regulation

Studies have shown that around 40–50% of the environmental impact of mobile phones occurs during the manufacture of their printed wiring boards and integrated circuits.^[86]

The average user replaces their mobile phone every 11 to 18 months,^[87] and the discarded phones then contribute to electronic waste. Mobile phone manufacturers within Europe are subject to the WEEE directive, and Australia has introduced a mobile phone recycling scheme.^[88]

Apple Inc. had an advanced robotic disassembler and sorter called Liam specifically for recycling outdated or broken iPhones.^[89]

Theft

According to the Federal Communications Commission, one out of three robberies involve the theft of a cellular phone.^{[citation needed]} Police data in San Francisco show that half of all robberies in 2012 were thefts of cellular phones.^{[citation needed]} An online petition on Change.org, called Secure our Smartphones, urged smartphone manufacturers to install kill switches in their devices to make them unusable if stolen. The petition is part of a joint effort by New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman and San Francisco District Attorney George Gascón and was directed to the CEOs of the major smartphone manufacturers and telecommunication carriers.^[90] On 10 June 2013, Apple announced that it would install a «kill switch» on its next iPhone operating system, due to debut in October 2013.^[91]

All mobile phones have a unique identifier called IMEI. Anyone can report their phone as lost or stolen with their Telecom Carrier, and the IMEI would be blacklisted with a central registry.^[92] Telecom carriers, depending upon local regulation can or must implement blocking of blacklisted phones in their network. There are, however, a number of ways to circumvent a blacklist. One method is to send the phone to a country where the telecom carriers are not required to implement the blacklisting and sell it there,^[93] another involves altering the phone’s IMEI number.^[94] Even so, mobile phones typically have less value on the second-hand market if the phones original IMEI is blacklisted.

Conflict minerals

Demand for metals used in mobile phones and other electronics fuelled the Second Congo War, which claimed almost 5.5 million lives.^[95] In a 2012 news story, The Guardian reported: «In unsafe mines deep underground in eastern Congo, children are working to extract minerals essential for the electronics industry. The profits from the minerals finance the bloodiest conflict since the second world war; the war has lasted nearly 20 years and has recently flared up again. For the last 15 years, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been a major source of natural resources for the mobile phone industry.»^[96] The company Fairphone has worked to develop a mobile phone that does not contain conflict minerals.^{[citation needed]}

Kosher phones

Due to concerns by the Orthodox Jewish rabbinate in Britain that texting by youths could waste time and lead to «immodest» communication, the rabbinate recommended that phones with text-messaging capability not be used by children; to address this, they gave their official approval to a brand of «Kosher» phones with no texting capabilities. Although these phones are intended to prevent immodesty, some vendors report good sales to adults who prefer the simplicity of the devices; other Orthodox Jews question the need for them.^[97]

In Israel, similar phones to kosher phones with restricted features exist to observe the sabbath; under Orthodox Judaism, the use of any electrical device is generally prohibited during this time, other than to save lives, or reduce the risk of death or similar needs. Such phones are approved for use by essential workers, such as health, security, and public service workers.^[98]

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

• «How Cell Phones Work» at HowStuffWorks
• «The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone», 15 photos with captions from Time magazine
• Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world—a video documentary by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation